Ok, so finally I think we can look at rotation curves. We'll make the simplifying assumption that the objects we are interested in are in a perfectly circular orbit about the center of the galaxy, an assumption which doesn't really change anything so it's ok (another larger point about physics: quite often [in fact, almost always], we take a complicated problem and approximate it into something smaller that we can solve [often called the "spherical cow" approach - we would approximate a cow to be a sphere and go from there]. The question then often becomes "how good was the approximation?" In this case, there is no real difference between circular and elliptical orbits, so the approximation is fine and the conclusions are valid).

We know the equation of circular motion, F=mv²/r. And by hypothesis, the only force acting on the object in orbit is the force of gravity, F=G*m₁*m₂/r². In this case, m₁ is the mass of the galaxy, and m₂ is the mass of the object. We equate the forces, so mv2/r = G*m₁*m₂/r². Now, the mass from the circular motion equation is just the mass of the object in orbit, so m₂ will cancel. All that remains is to solve for the velocity, since that's what we measure using the Doppler effect and red shift.

m₂*v²/r = G*m₁*m₂/r²

First, divide both sides by m₂

v²/r = G*m₁/r²

Next, multiply through by r

v² = G*m₁/r

Now, take the square root of both sides

v = Sqrt(G*m₁/r)

And that's it. We have derived that the velocity of an object in orbit about a galaxy should be proportional to the square root of the mass of the galaxy divided by the orbital radius. There is one more thing we should be aware of, which is that I haven't made any assumptions yet about the size of the mass of the galaxy. A galaxy is a very large thing, and what happens if you're inside part of it? For example, the Sun and the Earth are somewhere inside the Milky Way galaxy. We do orbit the Milky Way center, but part of the Milky Way is outside our orbit. The answer is that in this case, m₁ refers the total mass inside the orbit. It doesn't matter how spatially extended it is in space, as long as the object in which we're interested is outside of the galaxy, the equations are fine. And since I'm particularly interested in the mass of the bright part of the galaxy, it's easy to know when we're outside that part, so everything holds.

Now, let's look at a plot. If all the mass were in the bright part of the galaxy, then outside the bright part (say a radius of 100, just to make the plot look right), from the last equation, we would expect the velocity to fall like 1/Sqrt(r) (G and m₁ would be constant). That would look like this:

Instead, we measure a flat line, like this:

Therefore, by deduction, we know that either Newtonian gravity is wrong (a possibility, I'll admit), or that there is more mass than we thought, mass that is not contained in the bright part of the galaxy. In fact, we know the distribution of that mass, as it has to increase like 1/Sqrt(r) or else the the velocity would not be flat.

This is what some of the actual data looks like:

These are measurements of galaxy rotation curves (Begeman, Broeils and Sanders, Mon. Not. R. astr. Soc., 1991, 249, 523). I apologize for the image quality, but velocity is on the y-axis and radius is on the x-axis, and all the black points are actual measurements. You can see at small radius the velocity increases. This is where the bright part of the galaxy is, and as the radius increases, we are containing more mass in the orbit. At larger radius, we would expect to see the velocity drop. But instead, it stays constant. The dashed and dotted lines are the the components of the mass, the bright part and the dark part. This data provides evidence that there is matter that we are not seeing, that is not interacting with light, but is dark matter.

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